## Integration of primitive functions

Integration of Primitive Functions

So this past week, I had another break through in my project. The first break through, as you may recall, was the completion of the integrate_hyperexponential() function, which allowed for the integration in hyperexponential extensions, including proving the nonexistence of elementary integrals. Now I have worked my way up to this level on the other major half of the integration algorithm (actually, major third; more on that later): integration of primitive elements.

This time, I can refer you to my previous blog post for definitions. The chief thing here is that there is now a function in my integration3 branch called integrate_primitive(), and it is used primarily for integrating functions with logarithms.

So, how about some examples? The first one comes from Algorithms for computer algebra By Keith O. Geddes, Stephen R. Czapor, George Labahn (example 12.8). I like it because it contains both exponentials and logarithms, in a way that they do not depend on each other, so it can be integrated with either integrate_primitive() or integrate_hyperexponential(). In either case, the polynomial part is $\frac{x}{x + 1}$, so recursively calling the other function is not required. (for those of you who have been following my integration3 branch, you may notice that this is blatantly taken from the commit history).

Hover over the code and click on the left-most, “view source” icon (a paper icon with < > over it) to view without breaks. Opens in a new window.

In [1]: from sympy.integrals.risch import integrate_primitive,
integrate_hyperexponential

In [2]: f = (x*(x + 1)*((x**2*exp(2*x**2) - log(x + 1)**2)**2 +
2*x*exp(3*x**2)*(x - (2*x**3 + 2*x**2 + x + 1)*log(x + 1))))/((x +
1)*log(x + 1)**2 - (x**3 + x**2)*exp(2*x**2))**2

In [3]: f
Out[3]:
⎛                          2                                                   ⎞
⎜⎛                       2⎞                                                   2⎟
⎜⎜     2           2  2⋅x ⎟        ⎛    ⎛           2      3⎞           ⎞  3⋅x ⎟
x⋅(1 + x)⋅⎝⎝- log (1 + x) + x ⋅ℯ    ⎠  + 2⋅x⋅⎝x - ⎝1 + x + 2⋅x  + 2⋅x ⎠⋅log(1 + x)⎠⋅ℯ    ⎠
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
2
⎛                                    2⎞
⎜   2                  ⎛ 2    3⎞  2⋅x ⎟
⎝log (1 + x)⋅(1 + x) - ⎝x  + x ⎠⋅ℯ    ⎠

In [4]: var('t0, t1')
Out[4]: (t₀, t₁)

In [5]: a, d = map(lambda i: Poly(i, t1), f.subs(exp(x**2),
t0).subs(log(x + 1), t1).as_numer_denom())

In [6]: a
Out[6]:
Poly((x + x**2)*t1**4 + (-2*t0**2*x**3 - 2*t0**2*x**4)*t1**2 +
(-2*t0**3*x**2 - 4*t0**3*x**3 - 6*t0**3*x**4 - 8*t0**3*x**5 -
4*t0**3*x**6)*t1 + 2*t0**3*x**3 + 2*t0**3*x**4 + t0* *4*x**5 +
t0**4*x**6, t1, domain='ZZ[x,t0]')

In [7]: d
Out[7]: Poly((1 + 2*x + x**2)*t1**4 + (-2*t0**2*x**2 - 4*t0**2*x**3 -
2*t0**2*x**4)*t1**2 + t0**4*x**4 + 2*t0**4*x**5 + t0**4*x**6, t1,
domain='ZZ[x,t0]')

In [8]: D = [Poly(1, x), Poly(2*x*t0, t0), Poly(1/(x + 1), t1)]

In [9]: r = integrate_primitive(a, d, D, [x, t0, t1], [lambda x: log(x +
1), lambda x: exp(x**2)])

In [10]: r
Out[10]:
⎛   ⎛                ⎛ 2⎞⎞      ⎛                ⎛ 2⎞⎞        ⎛ 2⎞                                ⎞
⎜   ⎜                ⎝x ⎠⎟      ⎜                ⎝x ⎠⎟        ⎝x ⎠                ⌠               ⎟
⎜log⎝log(1 + x) + x⋅ℯ    ⎠   log⎝log(1 + x) - x⋅ℯ    ⎠     x⋅ℯ    ⋅log(1 + x)     ⎮   x           ⎟
⎜───────────────────────── - ───────────────────────── - ────────────────────── + ⎮ ───── dx, True⎟
⎜            2                           2                                    2   ⎮ 1 + x         ⎟
⎜                                                           2           2  2⋅x    ⌡               ⎟
⎝                                                        log (1 + x) - x ⋅ℯ                       ⎠


An explanation: f is the function we are integrating. Preparsing is not implemented yet, so we have to do it manually in [5]. [8] is the list of derivations of the monomials we are working with, [x, t0, t1], which represent $x$, $e^{x^2}$, and $\log{(x + 1)}$, respectively. Because the outermost monomial is a logarithm (primitive), we call integrate_primitive() on it. The last argument of the function is the back substitution list, in reverse order because that is the order we have to back substitute in. We can see the result contains an unevaluated Integral. This is because the recursive calls to integrate over the smaller extensions have not yet been implemented. In the final version, integrate() will automatically call ratint() in this case on it to give the complete answer. The second argument of the result, True, indicates that the integral was elementary and that this is the complete integral.

Because the extensions did not depend on each other, we could have also integrated in $\mathbb{Q}(x, \log{(x + 1)}, e^{x^2})$ instead of $\mathbb{Q}(x, e^{x^2}, \log{(x + 1)})$:

In [11]: a1, d1 = map(lambda i: Poly(i, t0), f.subs(exp(x**2), t0).subs(log(x + 1), t1).as_numer_denom())

In [12]: D1 = [Poly(1, x), Poly(1/(x + 1), t1), Poly(2*x*t0, t0)]

In [13]: r1 = integrate_hyperexponential(a1, d1, D1, [x, t1, t0], [lambda x: exp(x**2), lambda x: log(x + 1)])

In [14]: r1
Out[14]:
⎛   ⎛              ⎛ 2⎞⎞      ⎛                ⎛ 2⎞⎞                                                ⎞
⎜   ⎜log(1 + x)    ⎝x ⎠⎟      ⎜  log(1 + x)    ⎝x ⎠⎟          ⎛ 2⎞                                  ⎟
⎜log⎜────────── + ℯ    ⎟   log⎜- ────────── + ℯ    ⎟       2  ⎝x ⎠                  ⌠               ⎟
⎜   ⎝    x             ⎠      ⎝      x             ⎠      x ⋅ℯ    ⋅log(1 + x)       ⎮   x           ⎟
⎜─────────────────────── - ───────────────────────── + ────────────────────────── + ⎮ ───── dx, True⎟
⎜           2                          2                                        2   ⎮ 1 + x         ⎟
⎜                                                             2           3  2⋅x    ⌡               ⎟
⎝                                                      - x⋅log (1 + x) + x ⋅ℯ                       ⎠


We can verify by taking the derivative that the results in each case are antiderivatives of the original function, f, even though they appear different.

In [15]: cancel(r[0].diff(x) - f)
Out[15]: 0

In [16]: cancel(r1[0].diff(x) - f)
Out[16]: 0


We can see in each case, the remaining unevaluated Integral was in $\mathbb{Q}(x)$ only, meaning that the recursive call to integrate_hyperexponential() or integrate_primitive(), respectively, would not have been necessary. Finally, we can see that choosing the correct extension to integrate over can make a difference, time wise:

In [17]: %timeit integrate_primitive(a, d, D, [x, t0, t1], [lambda x: log(x + 1), lambda x: exp(x**2)])
1 loops, best of 3: 1.91 s per loop

In [18]: %timeit integrate_hyperexponential(a1, d1, D1, [x, t1, t0], [lambda x: exp(x**2), lambda x: log(x + 1)])
1 loops, best of 3: 2.63 s per loop


Just as with the exponential case, the function can prove the integrals are non-elementary. This is the so-called logarithmic integral:

In [19]: f1 = 1/log(x)

In [20]: a, d = map(lambda i: Poly(i, t1), f1.subs(log(x), t1).as_numer_denom())

In [21]: a
Out[21]: Poly(1, t1, domain='ZZ')

In [22]: d
Out[22]: Poly(t1, t1, domain='ZZ')

In [23]: integrate_primitive(a, d, [Poly(1, x), Poly(1/x, t1)], [x, t1], [log])
Out[23]: (0, False)


The second argument, False, indicates that the integral was non-elementary. Namely, the function has proven that the function $f - D(0) = \frac{1}{\log{(x)}}$ does not have an elementary anti-derivative over $\mathbb{Q}(x, \log{(x)})$ (see the previous post for more information).

Finally, be aware that, just as with integrate_hyperexponential() many integrals will raise NotImplementedError, because the subroutines necessary to solve them have not yet been finished.

In [25]: f = log(log(x))**2

In [26]: f.diff(x)
Out[26]:
2⋅log(log(x))
─────────────
x⋅log(x)

In [27]: a, d = map(lambda i: Poly(i, t1),
cancel(f.diff(x)).subs(log(x), t0).subs(log(t0), t1).as_numer_denom())

In [28]: a
Out[28]: Poly(2*t1, t1, domain='ZZ')

In [29]: d
Out[29]: Poly(t0*x, t1, domain='ZZ[x,t0]')

In [30]: D = [Poly(1, x), Poly(1/x, t0), Poly(1/(x*t0), t1)]

In [31]: integrate_primitive(a, d, D, [x, t0, t1], [lambda x: log(log(x)), log])
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NotImplementedError: Remaining cases for Poly RDE not yet implemented.


Now one thing that I want to add from the above examples taken from the commit message is that logarithms are not the only function that are primitive. The Li function (the logarithmic integral, as above), considered as an elementary extension of $\mathbb{Q}(x, \log{(x)})$ is also primitive. But even among the commonly defined elementary functions, there is one other, acrtangents.

In [32]: diff(atan(x)**2, x)
Out[32]:
2⋅atan(x)
─────────
2
1 + x

In [33]: integrate_primitive(Poly(2*t, t), Poly(1 + x**2, t), [Poly(1, x), Poly(1/(1 + x**2), t)], [x, t], [atan])

Out[33]:
⎛    2         ⎞
⎝atan (x), True⎠

In [34]: integrate_primitive(Poly(t, t), Poly(x, t), [Poly(1, x), Poly(1/(1 + x**2), t)], [x, t], [atan])

Out[34]:
⎛⌠                  ⎞
⎜⎮ atan(x)          ⎟
⎜⎮ ─────── dx, False⎟
⎜⎮    x             ⎟
⎝⌡                  ⎠


Due to a bug in the code right now, the final version returns the non-elementary integral in the final result. Suffice it to say that it has proven that $\int {\frac{\arctan{(x)}}{x} dx}$ is non-elementary. As far as I know, this isn’t any special function. Actually, it’s just a random function containing arctan that looked non-elementary to me that I plugged in and found out that I was correct. It’s very similar in form to the exponential integral (Ei) or the Sine/Cosine Integral (Si/Ci), which is how I guessed that it would be non-elementary. Maybe it should be called ATi().

Status Update

So it has come to my attention that the suggested “pencils down” date is one week from Monday, and the hard “pencils down” date is two weeks from Monday (see the Google Summer of Code Timeline). Now, no matter how fast I work, my work cannot be pushed in until Mateusz’s latest polys branch gets pushed in, because my work is based on top of it. I plan on continuing work on the integration algorithm beyond the summer until I finish the transcendental part of the algorithm, and even after that, I want to look into implementing other integration related things, like definite integration using Meijer G-functions, and the algebraic part of the algorithm. But for now, these are the things that I need to do for the transcendental part, which is this summer’s work:

1. Implement the preparsing algorithms. This part is two-fold. First, I need to implement algorithms based on the Risch Structure Theorems, which allow me to determine if an extension is algebraic or not (if it is algebraic, we cannot integrate it because only the transcendental part is implemented). The other part will be the function that actually goes through an expression and tries to build up a differential extension from it so it can be integrated. This can be a tricky part. For example, if we want to integrate $f = e^x + e^{\frac{x}{2}}$, we want to first choose $t_1=e^{\frac{x}{2}}$ so that $f = t_1^2 + t_1$, because if we choose $t_1=e^x$, then $t_2=e^{\frac{x}{2}}=\sqrt{t_1}$ will be algebraic over $\mathbb{Q}(x, t_1)$. This is one case where we might try adding an algebraic extensions but where it can be avoided. The solution will have to be to go through and find the common denominators of the exponentials. I’m also considering that this might happen in more advanced ways, so it could be necessary for the function to backtrack in the extension tree to see if it can do it in an entirely transcendental way. Fortunately, the Risch Structure Theorems give us a decision procedure for determining if an extension can be written in terms of the previous extensions (is algebraic over it), but this will still be a very hard function to get right.

2. Finish the remaining cases for integrate_hyperexponential() and integrate_primitive(). As you could see in this post, as well as in the previous one, there are many integrals that cannot yet be integrated because the special cases for them have not been implemented yet. Most of these actually rely on implementing the structure theorem algorithms from 1, and implementing them once that is finished will not take long, because they will just be straight copying of the pseudocode from Bronstein’s book. But some of them, particularly ones from the primitive case, are not spelt out so well in Bronstein’s book, and will require more thinking (and thus time) on my part. I should note that the Structure Theorem algorithms are also this way.

3. Implement the hypertangent case. The ability to integrate in tangent extensions is the other third I mentioned above. Since tangents require more special casing, I plan on doing this only after I have finished 1 and 2. This is actually not much work, because most of the algorithms for solving the particular subproblem for tangents (called the Coupled Risch Differential Equation) are exactly the same as those for solving the subproblem for hyperexponentials (the Risch Differential Equation), which are already (mostly) implemented in the hyperexponential part. There are only a few extra functions that need to be written for it. Also, you will still be able to integrate functions that contain tangents, such as $e^{\tan{(x)}}$ (recall last time that we showed that integrate_hyperexponential() can prove that this does not have an elementary integral). It just won’t be able to integrate when the top-most extension is a tangent.

So here is what I plan on doing. Right now, I am going to focus my work on 1, since most of 2 can’t be done until it is anyway. But more importantly, I want to have a prototype user-level function for the Risch Algorithm. The reason I want this is so that people can try it out, without having to do the preparsing like I did above, but rather they can just call risch_integrate(f, x), and it will return the integral of f, prove that it is non-elementary and reduce it into the elementary and non-elementary parts, or explain why it cannot do it (either because the function is not transcendental or because something is not implemented yet). My chief desire for doing this is so that people can try out my code and find the bugs in it for me. I have already found many critical errors in the code (returns a wrong result), and I want to iron these out before anything goes in. The best way to do this will be to release a working user-level function and hope that people try it out for me.

Also, even if 2 and 3 are not finished, if I have 1, I can integrate it with integrate() (no pun intended) and just have it bail if it raises NotImplementedError I will need to come up with a way to differentiate between this and the case where it returns an unevaluated Integral because it has proven that an elementary antiderivative does not exist. Any suggestions?

I plan on continuing work after the summer until I finish 1 through 3, though I won’t pretend that my work won’t slow down considerably when I start classes in August. I also promise to finish the Risch Algorithm posts that I promised.

And for what it’s worth, I plan on working my ass off this next two weeks.

### 3 Responses to Integration of primitive functions

1. xavier says:

Great job!!

Symbolic integration algorithms is chanlenging….
IIRC, a large fraction of mathematica open bugs is in “Integrate”.

Definite integrate using Meijer G-functions is another story:
You have to deal with branch points.

• asmeurer says:

Hi xavier.

Yes, this is why I want to release a prototype function for testing before it gets merged into the main SymPy. I’ve found that perhaps more than 50% of the bugs I have found so far in my code have lead to wrong results (as opposed to raising an exception). I’m very close to finishing the preparser code, so look out for a blog post about it either today or tomorrow.

Do you know of any good references on definite integration with the Meijer G-functions? So far, the best I have found are some papers by Kelly Roach.

2. […] ready for testing! So today I finally finished up the prototype function I talked about last time. The function is called risch_integrate() and is available at my integration3 branch. Unlike the […]